Reported earnings or actual earnings Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Announced profit or genuine income - Essay Example Organizations utilize bookkeepers to make money related reports. In this manner, from the viewpoint of bookkeeping, what would we be able to state on the circumstance? Are bookkeepers being utilized by banks to misquote organization benefits? On a related point, how would we survey the â€Å"earning the executives techniques† as to their capability to be utilized by organizations to downplay organization benefits? Comparable to the said issues, what do the expert morals for bookkeepers require for bookkeeping experts on the issue? What are a portion of the significant writing on the issue? II. Writing survey Some of the important materials on the topic being tended to by this work were crafted by Miter and Rodrigue (2002), Turner and Wheatley (2003), Laux (2003), and Lev (2003). Mitra and Rodrigue (2002, p. 185) characterized profit the executives as management’s â€Å"intentional and pioneering control of money related reports for individual gain†. As per Mitra and Rodriguqe (2002, p. ... 185) explained that income the board doesn't generally a negative meaning since the board may have actualized a profit the executives to give a moderate or increasingly reasonable winning figures dependent on the GAAP or Generally Accepted Accounting Principles. Mitra and Rodrigue clarified (2002, p. 185) that astute conduct emerge from income the executives since it is experimentally hard to separate profit the board that is sharp based on what is done in light of a legitimate concern for a moderate depiction of the organization circumstance. The Mitra and Rodrigue (2002, p. 185) appraisal is that administration or scientists â€Å"generally take an artful perspective† considering the trouble of isolating genuine based on what is ill-conceived in profit the executives. Turner and Wheatley (2003, p. 61) recognized that current bookkeeping standards, inspecting principles, and SEC detailing guidelines permit administrators to actualize a â€Å"inappropriate profit managementâ € . To help their case, the creators recognized 34 organizations that distributed budgetary misquotes yet which likewise rectified the errors a year later (Turner and Wheatley 2003, p. 61). As indicated by the creators, the board resulting â€Å"correction† of â€Å"astute authority over the making of a misstatement† benefits an organization similarly as a misquote may have been purposely made in light of a legitimate concern for the organization. The creators portrayed that the Financial Executives Research Foundation detailed that the quantity of organizations rehashing distributed fiscal summaries because of a mistake were higher than prior figures: the figure of 464 for the 3-year time frame 1998-2000 for the United States was higher than the previous 10-year time frame (Turner and Wheatley 2003, p. 61). Turner and

Even Grammar Gurus Make Mistakes

Indeed, even Grammar Gurus Make Mistakes Indeed, even Grammar Gurus Make Mistakes Indeed, even Grammar Gurus Make Mistakes By Mark Nichol I’ve saw that I’ve been ignoring more missteps in these posts as of late or maybe it’s simply that I haven’t been causing less blunders as I to come, as I would have expected after six months’ worth of practically day by day entries. Because of shrewd site guests who (for the most part) amenably call attention to typographical blunders, I note that sporadically I type an inappropriate type of a word (fundamental rather than essentially, for instance), or that, when I furnish an example sentence with a mistake and afterward give a commented on rectification, now and again I neglect to really address the sentence. (Does that jive I mean, agree with your perception?) I’d like to have the option to let you know, â€Å"I intended to do that I simply needed to check whether anyone was paying attention,† yet in all actuality, I commit errors. What's more, as most bloggers, I don’t have an editorial manager to clear up after me. Also, as I’ve regularly stated, particularly to individuals new to the expert distributing world’s composing altering editing convention, everyone needs a proofreader even editors. In any case, before you send me your resume, note that we’re not employing web journals are, by their temperament, a pretty much unconstrained mode of correspondence (however I attempt to survey my work cautiously), and, at any rate, DailyWritingTips.com doesn’t have the assets to actualize an increasingly conventional article methodology (not yet, in any event). I understand very well that in my warning limit, I have an obligation to take a stab at thorough perfection an almost unthinkable errand I will in any case persistently endeavor to achieve, however I likewise thank you falling behind financially and ahead of time for your (well-intentioned, I trust) remarks about each lapsus clavis. Talking about slip-ups, there are mechanical mistakes, and there are blunders of reality. I don't profess to be an irreproachable expert on each theme I expound on. Be that as it may, I have spent numerous years seriously gaining a functional information on language, and by showing altering (which I used to do), expounding on creation (which I do now), and investigating language use (which I have consistently done), I have learned and handled much about composition and altering. In this gathering, I invite the chance to impart that information and knowledge to you, and in this discussion, you are welcome and urged to react in kind. Note this well, in any case: If you can't help contradicting anything I expound on composing, that’s your right. Be that as it may, don’t depend on your suppositions or your instruction. (Those impacts frequently mix incompletely, and teachers commit errors, as well.) The most ideal approach to learn is to counsel different sources and build up your own comprehension at a point where those sources cross and note that I didn’t allude to a fixed point. I attempt to be reliable yet adaptable, and I generously prescribe that demeanor to all. Need to improve your English in a short time a day? Get a membership and begin accepting our composing tips and activities day by day! Continue learning! Peruse the General class, check our well known posts, or pick a related post below:Comparative Forms of Adjectives34 Writing Tips That Will Make You a Better WriterTypes of Plots

Harley Davidson case analysis Essay Example for Free

Harley Davidson case investigation Essay This case centers around the notorious bike brand of Harley-Davidson. Harley-Davidson is an American bike fabricating organization established in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Since Harley-Davidson was set up in 1903, the maker has encountered its ups and down. It particularly experiences battles like some other vehicle industry during financial downturns. Very nearly chapter 11 around 1980, Harley-Davidson made an astounding rebound. This rebound was for the most part a consequence of Harley-Davidson’s fuse of client administrations into its items, item separation through quality and configuration just as concentrating creation on a reliably elevated level of value. Today, the company’s yearly overall deals absolute more than $4 billion worldwide and have a yearly yield of 200,000 cruisers along 35 distinct models in seven product offerings. With these outcomes it is protected to state that Harley-Davidson rules the U. S. cruiser advertise and is likewise solid in Europe and Japan. Harley-Davidson does a generally excellent activity at separating its item. Truth be told, item separation is the principle part of Harley-Davidson’s advertising procedure. They need to offer a cruiser like no other bike available at the highest caliber. Harley-Davidson stresses its degree of value as well as its consistency of value too. Quality alludes to the general trait of an item that permits it to proceed true to form in fulfilling client needs. Accordingly quality can be utilized to separate items on the grounds that not all items fulfill the requirements of the shopper. Harley-Davidson offers a wide range of lines of cruisers including restricted version models just as customization alternatives. On the off chance that the client modifies the cruiser, at that point they ought to get precisely what they need at a high caliber. Harley-Davidson underlines the consistency of value as much as the degree of value on the grounds that regardless of how high the degree of value is, in the event that it isn't predictable, at that point they will lose clients. For instance, in the event that you go to a café that serves food the manner in which you like it to be arranged just 50% of the time, all things considered, you will no longer go there. At that point word spreads to other people and they are less inclined to go to that café as well. The equivalent goes for Harley-Davidson. They need to guarantee that each cruiser has a high caliber to keep the clients fulfilled and deliver much more clients. They likewise offer financing and protection which separates them from contenders much more. Harley-Davidson accepts that client care is a significant piece of the item. They help separate their item by offering clients preparing, warrantees, ensures, fixes and adornments. They need the clients to be OK with the workers and have a positive purchasing experience. A few sellers even make it a stride further by offering a Rider’s Edge course. Since this course was offered at certain vendors, in excess of 150,000 individuals have graduated and earned a cruisers permit. This client assistance area focuses on the number of inhabitants in individuals who might want to purchase a Harley-Davidson however don't have the foggiest idea how to ride. They join these bit by bit courses with the workers and are on target to one day having their own Harley. They additionally offer a line of bicycles for ladies and show ladies how to ride bicycles, get them, and help them with any data they need in the purchasing procedure. They even have established the Harley Owens Group so as to impart a feeling of network among riders. There are more than 1 million individuals. They approach certain advantages, bunch rides, individuals just site, restrictive magazines, and an extraordinary client support hotline. They considerably offer free visits at four of its manufacturing plants, also the historical center. The Harley-Davidson gallery is situated in its central command in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The historical center highlights shows from the company’s past items, for example, test vessels, bicycles, snowmobiles and golf trucks, to today’s models. They additionally feature the company’s most recent advancements, and internal operations of its new item improvement process. This exhibition hall may assume a job in impacting how clients see the organization and its items since they can see where the organization has been, the place they are, and where they need to be. It additionally allows the potential clients to encounter what it resembles to be a Harley-Davidson proprietor. They considerably offer a virtual ride bicycle with the goal that individuals can nearly get a direct look at what it resembles to claim a bicycle. Harley-Davidson has an extremely wide showcasing blend. They have bicycles that pull in individuals of various sizes, styles, age, and sexual orientation. They offer an excellent bicycle at a cost of $6,999 for novices. They offer a line solely for ladies with littler bicycles and a wide assortment of redoing items. They target making a feeling of distinction and opportunity for the riders. As a rider gets increasingly experienced they can exchange their bicycle for a further developed one on the off chance that they feel it is important. They likewise offer various styles of bicycles for the individuals who are experienced. They run from cruisers to choppers to sports bicycles. Altogether there are seven product offerings with 35 distinct models. In this way the item profundity is 7 and its length is 35. The following is a rundown broadly expounding on the showcasing blend. On the off chance that I needed to develop a brand name for a line of extravagance bikes I would consider it the American Eagle. This brand name would particularly speak to the American market yet would likewise be engaging around the world. It suggests a high American quality, which is rich and significant and is steady with the American way of life. Item  The significant item is substantial weight cruiser of 750 cc for turning out on overwhelming streets.  A number of brands have been presented in its era old enough, and every one was coordinated, well prepared and in the know regarding appreciation to mechanical headways (Johnstone, 1995). The trademark creations of the organization helped it to procure hawk mark for itself. A fantastic client support is given in the event of any equivocalness, and clients are completely guided for the up and coming brands.  Deals in marked engine bicycles and other restricted division of open market.  Also bargain in utilized bicycles, there usable parts being fixed and presented in the market at lower value go  Spare part showcase has likewise got their name at the highest priority on the rundown.  Twin Cam motor is its major innovatory item.  They likewise offer administrations for fixing. Transformation motor is likewise presented on their development records. Value Their costs are generally kept up around a specific figure.  The significant income segment is substantial bicycles alongside save parts.  The organization has been in emergency for hardly any years as its piece of the overall industry dropped by 43 (%) percent.  The organization is wanting to take out its representatives in the coming year for keeping up the company’s money related position (Wilson, 1993).  During the hour of emergency the vehicle costs were unexpectedly expanded yet now it’s being trusted that they will be controlled. Spot. The organization has obtained 358,000 square foot plant in Kansas City for the creation of Dyna Glide, Sportster, and V-Rod models.  For helping Latin American development n Assemly plant is situated in Brazil. By building up assembling units, a tremendous creation was accomplished (Margie, 2009).  Harley Davidson is additionally pushing ahead to trade bicycles in India too to build its creation and fare area also. Harley Davidson likewise provides food the engine bicycles trade in many pieces of the world however it isn't that much affordable in view of high custom obligation for substantial apparatus. Advancement  Different showcasing arrangements are being applied for the advancement of the organization. Fortunate draws are convenient presented, while advancing its political edge.  Certain free administrations are declared for indicating generosity signals on the new engine bicycles deal.  Some times passages are additionally orchestrated mass deals, particularly when there is low deal time. Attractive advertisements are set on various channels.  Most of the magazines in U. S advance the organization by its great inclusion. References Pride, W. M.. , Ferrell, O.C. , (2012). Establishments of Marketing. Pg. 77. Australia Mason, OH: South-Western, Cengage Learning (2012, ). H-D1â„ ¢ Customization | Custom Motorcycles | Harley-Davidson USA. Recovered. November 17, 2012, from http://www. harley-davidson. com/en_US/Content/Pages/H-D1_Customization/h-d1_cu stomization. html? locale=en_USbmLocale=en_US (2011, March 8). Harley Davidson Marketing Mix | Marketing Mixx. Recovered November 17, 2012, from http://marketingmixx. com/showcasing nuts and bolts/advertising blend/159-harley-davidson-promoting blend. html.

Inter Firm Relationships In The Silicon Fen Economics Essay - Free Essay Example

The attention that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"clustersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ have received from policy makers and academics has substantially increased in the last 20 years. Since Porter ´s seminal work on The Competitive Advantage of Nations (1990) presented à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"clustersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ as one of the determinants of the international competitiveness of nations and regions, many scholars have adopted and further developed his approach. Porter bases his arguments on what he describes as the globalization paradox, pointing out that despite the logical implications that the globalisation process might have in dismissing the relevance of regional factors, the most competitive firms in world are located in groups geographically concentrated in specific locations. That perspective contributed to attracting attention to the existence of characteristics tied to a local context that could not be accessed by firms positioned elsewhere, and more, to the positive effects that the concentration and the geographic proximity could exert on the firm ´s competitiveness. However influential, Porter ´s ideas were not the precursor to discussing the competitive outcomes originating from the geographic concentration of firms (Martin and Sunley, 2003). The roots of cluster theory go back to the industrial districts identified by Marshall (1890), who offered the first detailed description about the economic and social systems created as a result of the spacial concentrations of industrial activities. The Marshallian industrial districts were arrangements of small firms interconnected by commercial operations (buyers and sellers) and other firms engaged in the same or similar activities, that shared productive factors, such as the labour market, infrastructure and tacit knowledge (Becattini, 2004, p. 68). According to Marshalà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s descriptions, a group of firms operating in one specific sector within a well-defined, concentrated and relatively small geographic area would experience higher levels of productivity and innovation, indeed t he emergence of a fertile environment for technical and organisational developments. Thus the local characteristics would enable the emergence of an à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"industrial atmosphereà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ that would increase the firmsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ potential to acquire (especially tacit) knowledge, and create positive external economies accessible only to the firms located within the district (Asheim, 2003, p. 416). That perspective tried to evidence that firms geographically concentrated could accesses restricted positive exogenous benefits (exogenous to firms, but endogenous to the district), which would be an alternative to the scale economies achieved by a single (integrated) firm. Additionally, following some of the seminal ideas proposed by Marshall, it is possible to observe a significant number of economic geographers that also explored regional development using the spatial economic agglomeration to support their ideas. Some examples of concepts emerging from that theoretical trend are à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"regional innovation milieuxà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Crevoisier, 2004), à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"neo-Marshallian nodesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Amin and Thrift, 1992) and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"learning regionsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Asheim, 1995). More examples can be found in Markusen (1996, p. 297), in which another three different types of industrial districts are described according to the firms configurations, internal versus external orientations and governance structures: a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"hub-and-spoke industrial districtà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, which is concentrated around one or more dominant firms; a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"satellite platformà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, formed by a group of unconnected br anches embedded in external links; and the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"state-anchored districtà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, concentrated on one or more public-sector institutions. Despite the logical and robust assumptions found in many of those concepts, their influence and dissemination were not as successful as the more general cluster framework proposed by Porter. Martin and Sunley (2003) attributes the successful dissemination of the Porterà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ concepts to the very general descriptions and delimitations that encompass a wide range of actors and many different structures. Following much of the concepts proposed by Porter, the description of advantages conferred on clustered firms associated with a general and structured analytical framework stimulated the development and dissemination of academic studies and subsidized the creation of supply-side competitiveness policies directed at structuring and supporting the development of clusters (Pitelis, 2010). That fact resulted in what Martin and Sunley (2003) describe as a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"policy panaceaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ in the use of clusters as a standard (sometimes the unique) target for promoting competitiveness, innovation and economic growth. Moreover, in the last 20 years an increasing number of empirical studies in different countries and sectors have been observed, which aim to identify and discuss the competitive outcomes originating from the concentration of firms and other actors in the same location, for example: Brazil à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" shoe manufacturing in the Sinos Valley (Schmitz, 2000); Spain à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" the textile and clothing industries in Catalonia (Porter, 1998); Taiwan à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" electronic products at the Hsinchu Science Park (Chen, 2008); and the United States à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" computer and information systems at the Silicon Valley (Saxenian, 1994). The large significant number of academic studies has resulted in a large number of definitions aiming to describe and establish an accepted cluster à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"templateà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (e.g., Enright, 1996; Swann and Prevezer, 1996, Rosenfeld, 1997; Porter, 1998) to support policy makers and academics has led to intense debates and controversial perspectives. Even though the concept of clusters has been increasingly widely disseminated and used by geographers, economists and policy makers, it has suffered from some conceptual confusion. Porter defines a cluster as a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"geographic concentration of interconnected companies, specialized suppliers, service providers firms in related industries, and associated institutions (for example, universities, standards agencies and trade associations) in particular fields that compete but also co-operateà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (1998, p. 197). However, Martin and Sunley (2003, p. 12) present consistent arguments that indicate the vaguen ess and superficiality of the concept proposed by Porter. According to their arguments, those characteristics make the concept of cluster means different things to different researchers and policy makers, creating problems for its proper use in the guidance of academics and governments. Those highly controversial aspects of the cluster theory have stimulated the continuous emergence of new concepts and definitions for à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"clustersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. Proposing a definition aiming to fill some of the gaps and failures found in extant cluster theory, Pitelis (2010, p. 5) defines clusters as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"geographical agglomerations of firms in particular, related, and/or complementary, activities, with a geographical dimension, that exhibit horizontal and/or vertical intra- and/or inter-sectoral linkages, which operate in the context of a facilitatory socio-institutional setting, and which co-operate and compete (co-opete) in inter-national marketsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. That definition tries offer to a more delimited approach that incorporates four major elements: geographical agglomeration, linkages, social-capital[1]and co-opetition (competition and cooperation). The use of those four elements in a single definition offers the possibility to cover the cluster characteristics using delimited criteria to identify and distinguish developed clusters from less complex geographical agglomerations of firms and institutions. Although it is possible to observe some level of ambiguity encompassing the clusterà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s theory, the existence of links interconnecting local actors complemented by geographical dimensions constitute some of the main common points used to guide academics and policy makers with interesting by the competitive outcomes originating from clusters. Those characteristics have frequently been used as the starting point to understand the economic dynamics of clustered firms, putting emphasis on the levels of innovation and productivity emerging from the concentration of different actors in the same area. Suggesting conditional characteristics to the presence of competitive advantages obtained by firms inside clusters, Ketels (2004) considers that the positive economic effects originated from the geographical concentration will only take place if four critical characteristics are shared among firms and institutions: Proximity: they must be geographically close to allow the emergence of knowledge spillovers and to share the same common resources; Linkages: the necessity of similarities in their activities leading to the establishment of connections and synergies; Interactions: the social interactions developed among firms, clients, suppliers, research institutes, and so on, is what forms the social capital that becomes possible firms to achieve differentiated competitive performances; Critical mass: it is important to have a significant number of firms and institutions in order to create meaningful impacts on performance of the local actors. Those characteristics described by Ketels may be used to guide the identification and distinction between à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"developed clustersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Pitelis, 2010) from à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"incipient clustersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Schmitz, 1999) in order to dismiss some incorrect interpretations associated with the clusters dynamics. Considering that the presence of geographic concentration of firms in the same industry is à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"strikingly common around the worldà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Porter, 1990, p.120), it is necessary the use of specific benchmarks to distinguish and classify different groups of firms geographically concentrated according to their specific characteristics (Gordon and McCann, 2000; Isbasoiu, 2006). Describing how the existence of local capabilities[2]create differentiated conditions for companies within à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"realà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ clusters, Menzel and Fornahl (2010) argue that clusters are essentially formed from path dependencies (Martin and Sunley, 2006), transaction costs economies (McCann and Sheppard, 2003) and small cognitive distances originating from spatial proximity (Maskell, 2001). Thus, that set of factors are expected to create a specific regional dynamics with influence on the firmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s economic performance. Taking into consideration the different stages of a cluster life cycle, and the misunderstandings related to the claims associated with the clusters and competitiveness, Schmitz points out that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"A group of small producers making the same or similar things in close vicinity to each other constitutes a cluster, but such concentration in itself brings few benefitsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (1999, p. 4), emphasizing that the mere pres ence of firms in a delimited area does not represent a source of value creation able to improve in a significant way the local economic performance. Following the arguments above, the differences between regional clusters and simple agglomerations (groups of firms) lie mainly on the interconnected nature and spatial proximity. Thus, clusters are characterized by intense collaborative networks and concentrations of collaboration and competition (co-opetitition) (Pitelis, 2010), conditions which offer significant opportunities and stimulate the emergence of regional competitive advantages (Steinle and Schiele, 2002). Complementarily, another critical characteristic observed within clusters is the diversity of actors. According to Porter (1990, 1998, 2000), an industrial cluster includes suppliers, consumers, related industries, governments, and supporting institutions such as universities. This way, the existence of a regional network formed by a significant group of interconnected local actors is one of the critical factors to understand the differentiated competitive performance of firms within clusters (Steinle and Schiele, 2002 ). Illustrating that argument, Saxenian (1994) observed that Hewlett Packard and other firms at the Silicon Valley had their performance improved by the development long-term partnerships with suppliers located geographically close. Moreover, based on that observation, Saxenian concluded that, especially in high-tech industries, the physical proximity represents a facilitator to the establishment of efficient collaborative arrangements required to create and manage complex products and services. 1.2 Evolutionary Stages of Industrial Clusters Despite the vast cluster literature, the number of academic works discussing the evolutionary patterns of clusters overtime is not so extensive. Some examples can be found in Pouder and John (1996), Klepper (2001, 2007), Wolter (2003) and Andersson et al., (2004), and despite the divergent perspectives, it is accepted that clusters follow a kind of life cycle comprised by different phases that significantly differ in their characteristics and influence on firmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s performance. Regarding the cluster dynamics, Pouder and John (1996) argue that comparative analysis between clustered and non-clustered firms during the industry life cycle reveal that firms within clusters outperform those geographically dispersed at the initial stages of development, and have a worse performance at its end. That fact suggests that the cluster life cycle is not just a local representation of the industry trajectory, but is a result from local peculiarities. The comparative analysis developed by Saxenian (1994) between the computer industry in Boston and Silicon Valley illustrates how different clusters belonging to the same industry are very likely to follow different trajectories (Menzel and Fornahl, 2010). Proposing a different perspective, Klepper (2001, 2007) suggests a model to demonstrate how the clusterà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s life cycle is determined by some the industry patterns. Klepper analyzed the automobile, tire and television industries and observed that at the beginning of the industry life cycle it was not possible to observe clear geographic concentrations of firms, with most of the firms spatially dispersed. He observed that in those industries clusters started to emerge and develop according to the industry growth rates. Klepper argues that the local characteristics originating from the spacial proximity (e.g., intensive spin-off process) give the stimulus for the geographic agglomeration of the whole industry, not only for specific groups. At the time the industry growth rate reduces, the attractiveness to remain agglomerated will also decrease and the industry will become dispersed again. That model proposed by Klepper represents a Technology-Product- Industry (TIP) life cycle. The logic behind this model is on the impact that the evolution of products and innovations has on the size, number, and location of firms. Wolter (2003) criticizes the model proposed by Klepper arguing that the growth rate cannot explain the agglomeration process in all industries on equal basis. Moreover, Wolter disagrees with the determinist perspective proposed by the TIP model, once it neglects that mature industries can be reinvented by radical or incremental innovations of new products and process. Analyzing the economic performance of firms within clusters Pouder and John (1996) attribute to the existence of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"mental modelsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ and biased cognitive focus the characteristics responsible for shaping the movement through the clusterà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s life cycle. Following that perspective, at initial stages the cluster dynamics creates an innovative environment that exerts positive impacts on the firmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s performance. However, overtime that initial condition is eroded by strong institutional pressures that create a homogeneous macroculture that acts inhibiting the innovative capacity of the firms within the cluster. As in the model presented by Klepper (2001, 2007), that trajectory proposed by Pouder and John may also be criticized by the determinism that ignores the possibility of adaptations or reconfigurations in order to avoid lock-ins and other negative effects. Considering the arguments proposed by Menzel and Fornahl (2010, p. 8) that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"very few clusters follow a rigid life cycle from emergence to growth and declineà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, it is expected that clusters evolve overtime according to the local dynamics created by economic and social interactions among firms and institutions. That dynamics may be influenced, but not strictly determined by industry patterns (Wolter, 2003). Following a generic and stylized trajectory, within successful clusters the local network formed by inter-firm connections will tend to be intensified overtime, with an increasing number of formal and informal interactions between the long-established companies and new the ones attracted to the cluster. Even though it is more conceivable to assume that the decisions adopted by firms and institutions are shaped by specific circumstances, a generic trajectory can be described following the stages illustrated in Figure 1. Figure 1: The cluster life cycle C:UsersLucasAppDataLocalMicrosoftWindowsTemporary Internet FilesContent.WordSem tÃÆ' ­tulo.jpg Source: Andersson et al. (2004, p. 43) Agglomeration: It is possible to observe the existence of a number of companies and other actors (e.g. banks, government agencies, universities, accountants, and lawyerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s offices) in a specific region working around the same or interrelated activities. Emerging cluster: Forming the embryo to the cluster some actors start to cooperation around some core activities, and start to realize the existence of common linkages. Developing cluster: The linkages are intensified by the emergence and attraction of new actors to the region, resulting in the creation of more interaction. In this context the development of inter-firm-cooperation becomes more evident through the development of joint efforts. The Mature cluster: This stage is configured by the presence of a certain critical mass of factors that consistently influence the competitive performance of the firms inside the cluster. The internal dynamics is characterized by the presence of an institutional environment, strong linkages, complementarities and the emergence of new firms through startups, joint ventures and spin-offs. Transformation: Indeed the process of continuous environmental change in markets, technologies, regulations and other process, to be successful a cluster have to innovate and adapt to these new conditions, other way stagnation and decay may affect the cluster dynamics. That process of change/adaptation may happen through the emergence of one or several interconnected clusters with focus in other activities, or by new configuration in terms of networks of firms and institutions. The presence of economic benefits for clustered firms described by authors like Schmitz and Nadvi (1999), Ketels (2004), Isbasoiu (2006) and Pitelis and Pseiridis (2006) are closely related to the stage of development that a cluster is experiencing. For example, an emerging cluster is not actually a cluster, since the small number of firms is not expected to present a high level of linkages and do not form a critical mass. Moreover, the absence of strong interdependencies such as labour mobility, spin-off, socioeconomic networks and intense exchange of good and services prevent the emergence of local capabilities. Thus, same considering that this stage constitutes the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"embryoà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ that determines the future cluster orientation, at this point the firms are not expected to be strongly influenced by a complex local dynamics. Observing that fact, Menzel and Fornahl (2010) present a skeptical position regarding the effectiveness of any competitiveness policy intended to stimulate the development of clusters at initial stages (agglomeration and emerging), since the existence of horizontal and vertical links among firms concentrated in the same region constitutes a very common fact around the world. Thus, it is almost impossible to distinguish agglomerations with real potential to become a cluster from less complex structures. Consequently, emerging clusters are almost always only described ex-post. After the initial stages of the clusters life cycle it is expected the development and intensification of interdependencies between firms within cluster boundaries (Press, 2006). Indeed the development of those interdependencies, firms start to resemble more with each other, being observe the emergence of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"convergent designsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ in terms of technological models (Menzel and Fornahl, 2010), specialized labour market (Cooke et al., 2007), production systems (Pitelis, 2010) and inter-firm relationships (Blien and Maier, 2008). Moreover, developing clusters also attract a high number of start-ups that act stimulating the intensification of intra-cluster relationships. This way, that process of convergence and expansion of the number of firms within the cluster boundaries culminates in the development of self-reinforcing external economies that decrease the heterogeneity among firms at the same time that creates benefits like transactions cost economies and the privileged access to local knowledge. As clusters reach the stage of maturity, the standards and configurations originating from past decisions become consolidate and it is observed a reduction in the growth rate of firms attracted to the cluster (Klepper, 2007). At this point the cluster trajectory may take two different directions. Keep unchanged, and suffer with a homogenization process that creates bias economic activities and therefore prevent firms to adapt to external shocks (Menzel and Fornahl, 2010). That situation traps firms in previous successful development path and lead to the geographic dispersion of the local actors and to the deterioration of the interdependencies and capabilities. The other possible trajectory is observed in clusters that reach the stage of maturity and successfully sustain the local dynamics by a continuous process of reconfiguration and adaptation to the external shocks (Wolter, 2003). 1.2 Clusters and Economic Performance The extant theory offers a wide range of explanations to justify the economic and competitive benefits experienced by firms located within clusters. Krugman (1991) stress the existence of increasing returns originating from the concentration of firms in the same area, arguing that the geographic proximity puts together the main parts related to firmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s activities (e.g., labours, firms, suppliers and costumers) resulting in transaction costs economies. Following other perspective, Schmitz and Nadvi (1999) argue that unintentional external economies are not sufficient to explain the competitiveness of firms located within clusters, attributing to the existence of deliberate joint actions (e.g., sharing equipments, associations, strategic alliances and producers improving components) a critical source of the competitive advantages. Pitelis and Pseiridis (2006) explain the levels of competitiveness and productivity associated with clustered firms considering the existence of specialized human resources, infrastructure and befits associated with unit costs economies complemented by the presence of an institutional atmosphere. Stressing a different point of view, Bahlmann and Huysman (2008) adopts the knowledge-based view of clusters to emphasize the relevance of knowledge spillovers among the firms to explain the advantages originated from the agglomeration process. Dupuy and Torre (2006) explains the existence of cluster in terms of the advantages originating from trust relationships that increase confidence and reduce risk and uncertainty about the intra-cluster operations taking place among the firms. Moreover, Zyglidopoulos et al. (2003), describe the positive effects that the reputation of a cluster may exert on the internalization process of small and micro enterprises through the alleviation of strategic constraints associated with factors like qualified work force, financing and reduction of the firmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s legitimation expenses. Despite that wide range of arguments, the most traditional perspective found in the cluster literature has explained the competitive advantages of clusters in terms of productivity and innovation (Pitelis, 1998; Porter, 1998), suggesting that the special characteristics originated from the economic and geographic proximity have significant impact on those two factors. Supplementary, Enright (1998) considers that the characteristics present inside the clusterà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s local environment result in pressures, incentives and capabilities that increase the firmsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ competitiveness comparatively to dispersed competitors, explaining the clustering process in terms of geographically restricted characteristics. Moreover, Solvell et al. (2003) suggests that the competitive advantages emerging from regional clusters may be classified as static and dynamics. According to this perspective, while the agglomeration process triggered and sustained intensively or exclusively by factors like natural resources, low cost labors and government subsidies offers a vulnerable (easy to be copied, substituted or simple eroded by environmental changes) competitive position, clusters based on dynamics characteristics like multi-sectorial externalities, advantages of scale and scope and specific knowledge spillovers are more dynamics and competitive. Extending the arguments presented by Solvell and his colleagues, Andersson et al. (2004) considers that the sustainability of static and dynamic competitive advantages is not strictly determined, arguing that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"staticà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ factors are the main responsible for the emergence of clusters, while the dynamics factors are only developed along t he different stages of the cluster life cycle. Complementing the understanding about the influence of the cluster dynamics on the firmsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ economic performance some authors like Porter (2001); Garnsey and Heffernan (2007); Karlsson (2008) and Mason (2008) describe the existence of a self-reinforcing process originating from the agglomeration externalities that contribute to create a regional virtuous-circle of increasing productivity, competitiveness and value creation. Following that argument, the economic and geographic proximity will stimulate firms to innovate more indeed benefits originating from local capabilities, which will stimulate even more the agglomeration process through the intensification of inter-firm relationships and the attraction of other firms from outside the cluster, which in turn will strength the local capabilities (Blandy, 2003, p. 101). Thus, the dynamics of clusters is expected to be self-reinforced by agglomeration benefits with significant influence on the firm ´s performance. Putting together the arguments associated with the economic impacts experienced by clustered firms indeed the existence of local factors, it is possible to identify and describe the following positive location-specific externalities: Cost savings indeed the geographic proximity with specialized suppliers, labours and distributors; Knowledge-spillovers (intentional and unintentional), since firms inside clusters can benefit from the knowledge dissemination process that may take place especially through inter-firm cooperation, specific linkages and labour mobility; Deliberate joint actions facilitated by the engagement in alliances and partnerships to achieve strategic objectives; Trust relationships, that through the geographic and economic proximity minimize the uncertainty associated with commercial operations, resulting in transactions costs economies; Pressures for higher performance, stimulated by the proximity with competitors; Specific Infrastructure and public goods that are oriented to attend the cluster demands, like roads, ports, laboratories and telecommunication networks; Complementarities, associated with firms in different activities but sharing common factors like raw material, clients and technologies that may enhance the cluster efficiency as whole. Discussing the role of regional clusters in shaping competitive patterns, Tallman et al. (2004) proposes a distinction between the types of competitive advantages emerging from clustered firms: based on traded interdependencies and based on untraded interdependencies. The concept of traded interdependencies is related to the existence of inter-firm transactions inside the cluster, and is observed in formal exchange operations that may take place in form of alliances, commercial operations and acquisitions. On the other hand, untraded interdependencies are related to less tangible effects, and are à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"based on shared knowledge for which no market mechanism exists; with no formal exchange of value for valueà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Tallman et al. 2004, p. 261). To illustrate the mechanisms by which the untraded interdependencies take place, it is possible to mention unintentional external economies associated with tacit knowledge shared through mechanisms like labor mobility. Those different types of interdependencies, especially untraded, present at the cluster level, represent a source of competitive advantage that is likely to be causal ambiguous (for firms inside and outside the cluster) and high complex in terms of their origins, what consequently constitutes attributes difficult to be replicated by competitors. However, the presence of untraded effects, especially unintentional knowledge spillovers, is viewed Enright (1998) as a constraining factor for firms within clusters, since the establishment of an efficient information flow may limit the firm ´s capacity to obtain monopoly profits from the development of innovations. Complementing the negative effects originating from the clusters dynamics, some authors also describe agglomeration diseconomies that have a negative impact firms located within clusters. For example, congestion effects (Arthur, 1990), institutional sclerosis (Pouder and John, 1996; Pitelis, 2010), rigidities associated with labour mobility and natural resources (Krugman, 1989) and pollution (Fan and Scott, 2003). This way, the dynamics and performance of a cluster is determined by the interplay between positive and negative externalities observed during the different stages of development that a cluster is expected to pass overtime (Wolter, 2003) Limitations in the Cluster Theory Notwithstanding the advances in the cluster theory some questions still remain insufficiently explored. One of the main limitations observed in the current state of the cluster literature is the lack of comparative perspectives to explain the advantages and disadvantages of clusters relatively to other alternative models of organization of economic activities. In his very novel approach, Pitelis (2010) suggests that any perspective trying to explain clusters in terms of absolute advantages is at the very best incomplete. In this context, Pitelis proposes the comparison of clusters vis-ÃÆ'  -vis to markets and hierarchies in order to understand the reasons and conditions that lead firms to engage in intra-clusters relationships, market operations (outside the cluster) or integrate within the firm ´s hierarchy. In fact it is not necessary a great effort to conclude that most of the cluster theory has been developed following a mono-institutional approach (e.g. Porter, 1990, 1 998; Saxenian, 1994; Rosenfeld, 1998; Swann and Sennett, 1998; Schmitz and Nadvi, 1999), while some few exceptions concentrated on transactions costs (e.g. Fujita and Thisse, 1996; Iammarino and McCann, 2006; Takeda et al., 2008) and knowledge creation efficiency (e.g. Hendry et al., 2000; Tracey and Clark, 2003; Reinau, 2007; Kongmanila and Takahashi, 2009) have been drawn on a comparative approaches between clusters and open-market operations. Assuming the arguments proposed by many scholars that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"clusters are engines of innovationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Davis, 2006, p. 32), the lack of comparative perspectives do not answer the question à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"whyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ clusters are more efficient than markets or the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"hierarchyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ to improve the firmsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ innovative capacity (Pitelis, 2010). Thus, despite the wide number of ramifications observed in the cluster theory such as innovative efficiency, productivity, social capit al and social interactions, its explicative power remains almost always restricted to à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"absoluteà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ terms. Considering that the existence of a regional inter-firm network formed by local actors is one of the critical characteristic to understand the dynamics of regional clusters, that lack of comparative perspectives represent an even more important issue. The mono-institutional approach adopted by many cluster scholars assumes that cooperation with local actors is positively associated with the firmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s performance, while more distant cooperative arrangements are usually neglected or supposed to have little significance (Tracey and Clark, 2003; Kongmanila and Takahashi, 2009). Moreover, apart from some very few exceptions (e.g., Pitelis, 2010; Best, 1999), the cluster theory does not offer a consistent explanation to justify the cluster efficiency comparatively to the firm à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"hierarchyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. Thus, in terms of inter-firm relationship one main gap remains in the cluster theory: what are the comparative advantages and disadvantages of clusters vis-ÃƒÆ '  -vis to markets and the firmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s hierarchies? Inter-firm Relationships and Clusters Despite the fact that the firmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s productivity and innovative capacity depends immediately from its own strengths and weakness (Barney, 1991) the knowledge exchange and the extension of resources and capabilities taking place through networks formed by clients, suppliers, institutions, etc. have an important influence on the firmà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s economic performance (Lavie, 2006). Pitleis (2010, p. 3) defines inter-firm cooperation as à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"quasi-stable and durable, formal or informal arrangements between two or more independent firms, aiming to further the perceived interests of the parties involvedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, stressing that indeed the specific local factors (e.g., labour mobility) clusters are characterized by the lower degree of formality of the linkages. Analysing the significance of regional networks, many scholars have developed empirical investigations demonstrating a close relationship between inter-firm cooperation, clusters and the creati on of local capabilities. For example, studying the cluster of shoe manufactures at the Sino Valley in Brazil, Schimitz (1999) concluded that clustered firms engaged in cooperative arrangements with competitors, suppliers, subcontractors and business associations demonstrated a superior competitive performance relatively to firms outside the cluster. Moreover, Knorringa (1999) observed that the presence of vertical and horizontal cooperative linkages have strong influence on the competitiveness of firms concentrated in the knit footwear industry in India, acting as an important source of flexibility to take advantage of scope and scale economies. Kongmanila and Takahashi (2009) give examples of different types of arrangements and interactions like subcontracting, market linkages with suppliers and costumers, informal and formal collaborations (e.g. joint ventures, strategic alliances and franchise), memberships associations and the movement of labours among firms to describe the possible inter-firm connexions that can be developed within clusters and shaped by the existence of local characteristics (e.g. geographic proximity, institutional environment and knowledge spillovers). Additionally, the presence of vertical linkages is described by Lazerson (1998) using a distinction between à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"backwardà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ cooperation (with suppliers) and à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"forwardà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ cooperation (with traders and buyers) to differentiate different kinds of interactions. Nadvi (1999) stress the importance of horizontal linkages between two or more local firms in terms of collective efforts associated with purchas e operations, use of equipments and the conjunct development of marketing strategies. The relevance of joint actions using à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"multilateral horizontal linkagesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Kongmanila and Takahashi, 2009, p.6) is also described by Schmitz (1998) as one critical source of competitive advantages created by the existence of intentional collective efforts among two or more firms. This way, it is possible to observe the existence of theoretical and empirical evidences supporting the influence of inter-firm relationships on the dynamics of regional clusters. However, the overemphasis put on the internal relationships has obfuscated the relevance that cooperation with actors that are located outside the cluster may represent for the firmsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ economic performance. Supporting this point of view, Hendry et al. (2000) argues that the clusterà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s theory has à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"failed to take account of other forms of networking in which firms engage, extending beyond their immediate localityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (p. 129), considering that the complexity necessary for innovation (especially in high-tech industries) demands the development of global linkages in order to establish different sources of inputs (especially knowledge) and explore advantages inherent to different locations. Complementarily, Pitelis (2010, p. 7) suggests that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬ ËÅ"the argument that clusters may reduce transactions cost, because of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“trustà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬?, social capital, and lower cognitive distance, (vis-ÃÆ'  -vis armà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s length transactions), need not imply that clusters can do so more than à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“integrationà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬? by firms, thus à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…“hierarchyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. Consequently, clusters have been explained in terms of positive agglomeration economies (previously described in this dissertation) and local capabilities, using the description of absolute advantages of clustering. A Comparative Perspective between Clusters and Markets Considering the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"limitedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ adopted by many cluster scholars, authors like Hendry et al. (2000), Tracey and Clark (2003), Reinau (2007) and Kongmanila and Takahashi (2009) point out the existence of logical implications associated with the cluster ´s dynamics that imply the necessity for a better comprehension of the role that external linkages have for firms within clusters. The first implication emerges from the fact that the same traded and untraded interdependencies that present positive impacts like transaction cost economies, expanded absorptive capacity and collective efficiencies, also exert a strong homogenisation pressure that drives the firm ´s practices, resources and strategies in the same direction. Secondly, local characteristics, like access to the same pool of specialised labours, create what Hamel and Prahalad (1994) describe as lack of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"genetic variabilityà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ of individuals, limiting the firmà ‚ ´s capabilities associated with the generation, absorption and management of new à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"bodies of knowledgeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ (Reinau, 2007, p. 4). Another constraining characteristic is observed in the spin-off process, enhanced within the cluster ´s boundaries by formal and informal channels, that acts increasing similarities among firms. Finally, the existence of specificities associated with the local context like roads, ports or communication systems tends to push firms in the same direction regarding strategic investments associated with structural factors. Complementarily, discussing the effects of the path dependency (Dosi, 1988) originating from the cluster trajectory (past decisions), Bell et al. (2009, p. 624) describe à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"how higher-order beliefs and assumptions, which constitute the shared macroculture of a cluster, enable and constrain transaction-level governance choicesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. The arguments proposed by Bell and his colleagues may be used to demonstrate how institutional configurations tend to create asymmetric costs for strategic decisions. In other words, the existence of an established cluster macroculture imposes pressures that lead firms to make transactions, mimic and engage in cooperative alliances with other firms that are also part of the cluster. Consequently, the cluster macroculture constitutes a strong determinant of the governance choices adopted by clustered firms. Other characteristic that also contributes to increase the homogenization of firms within cluster is the number of redundant contacts created through the labor mobility between firms positioned in the same area (Pouder and John, 1996). Describing the local dynamics of regional clusters Grove (1987, p. 156) states that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"A popular joke about Silicon Valley is that all you have to do to change jobs is turn left instead of right when you come out of your drivewayà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢. This way, indeed the existence of job opportunities in the same location, managers and other employees of companies located in regional clusters are stimulated to stay in the same area, even when they change their jobs. That characteristic contributes to stabilize and increase the density of the local network. Consequently, the local network of regional clusters is expected to present low knowledge diversity indeed the high number of redundant connections[3]. Considering those evidences, Tichy (2001) describes the existence of a à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"cluster paradoxà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, since at the same time that the high level of specialisation, strong linkages and the synergy offer a wide number of benefits, ranging from knowledge sharing to transaction costs, those same characteristics decrease the ability of firms to create, incorporate and manage new knowledge that departs from the standards incorporated to the cluster dynamics. Moreover, Pouder and John (1996) describe how the local characteristics contribute to creating similar à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"mental modelsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ between the cluster members. As a result, once these mental models are formed and disseminated, they will tend to persist, even when confronted with contradictory evidences therefore firms positioned in regional clusters will have their ability to recognise and adapt to environmental changes limited indeed by the severe homogenisation pressures imposed by the local dyna mics. Consequently, the same factors that create similarities and facilitate the exploitation of synergies also limit the benefits associated with the creation and absorption of heterogeneous knowledge. Thus, strong diversity enables firms within clusters to incorporate and adapt to changes in environmental conditions, or to depart from the previous development path more easily. However, large heterogeneity among firms can also prevent exploitation of synergies and other benefits that emerge from the presence of similar characteristics and therefore limit the benefits associated with transaction costs, absorptive capacity and the access to knowledge present within the cluster boundaries. Considering the negative impacts that the homogenization exerts on the firms performance, Menzel and Fornahl (2010, p. 19) state that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"The cluster declines if its heterogeneity cannot be sustainedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢, describing the importance of the knowledge diversity for the competitiveness of firms within clusters. This way, considering all the aforementioned characteristics, firms are expected to be stimulated to engage in cooperative arrangements with other firms positioned within the same cluster in the case of demands that do not strongly depart from the already disseminated standards (e.g., knowledge, technologies and specialized services). In this context, it is also important to present a comparative argument to explain à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‹Å"whyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ firms prefer to use the local network (the cluster) instead of establishing distant cooperative arrangements. In other words, unless the in the situation that the firmsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ demands could only be attended by another firm within the same cluster (e.g., in case of monopoly of a technology), there would be no reasons or obstacles for the clustered firms to look for partners outside the cluster (market operations). Two complementary rationales can be used to explain that fact. First, following the propositions made by Krugman (1991); Pitelis, and Pseiridis (2006) and Takeda et al. (2008), the short geographic distances between firms contribute to create transaction costs economics that increase the cost-efficiency of the local operations, stimulating the interaction with local actors through the creation of asymmetric transaction costs. Second, the arguments presented by Dupuy and Torre (2006) that within clusters the inter-firm relationships are supported by a higher level of confidence between the parts, indicates that intra-cluster relationships are expected to be less risky and be encompassed by lower levels of uncertainty when compared to market operations. Colocar mais enfase na aboragem comparativa, ainda nÃÆ' £o ÃÆ' © suficiente LIGAR ESSAS IDÃÆ'†°IAS COM O CICLO DE VIDA, DIZENDO QUE EM ESTÃÆ'?GIOS INICIAS AS EMPRESAS NÃÆ'Æ’O CONTEM COM ELEVADOS NÃÆ'?VEIS DE CONFIANÃÆ'†¡A E POR ISSO SÃÆ'Æ’O ESTIMULADAS A INTERAGIR COM ATORES EXTERNOS Consequently, using a comparative perspective between the inter-firm relationships developed within and outside clusters, it is expected that the transaction costs economies associated with higher level of confidence between parties stimulate firms to engage in local operations. However, it is also important to acknowledge that in most of the cases that firms present demands that depart from what is already spread inside the cluster they will develop market operations indeed the limitations associated with the low knowledge diversity created by the strong homogenization pressures originated from the cluster dynamics. H: Inter-firm relationships within the cluster boundaries are characterized by low transaction costs and higher level of confidence H: The dynamics of regional clusters creates strong homogenization pressures that results Clusters and Hierarchies The transaction cost logic and trust levels can not be used to explain clusters vis a vis with hierarchy, since the activities integrated to the firm will present less transaction costs and higher level of control.

Biography of Olympias, Mother of Alexander the Great

Olympias (c. 375–316 BCE) was an ambitious and violent ruler of ancient Greece. She was the daughter of Neoptolemus I, the king of Epirus; the wife of Philip II, who ruled over Macedonia; and the mother of Alexander the Great, who conquered the territory from Greece to northwest India, establishing one of the largest kingdoms of his time. Olympias was also the mother of Cleopatra, the queen of Epirus. Fast Facts: Olympias Known For: Olympias was the queen of Macedonia and the mother of Alexander the Great.Also Known As: Polyxena, Myrtale,  StratoniceBorn: c. 375 BCE in Epirus, Ancient GreeceParents: Neoptolemus I of Epirus, mother unknownDied: c. 316 BCE in Macedonia, Ancient GreeceSpouse: Philip II of Macedonia (m. 357-336 BCE)Children: Alexander the Great, Cleopatra Early Life Olympias was born around 375 BCE, the daughter of Neoptolemus I of Epirus, a Greek king, and an unknown mother. Her family was a powerful one in ancient Greece; they claimed to be descended from the Greek hero Achilles, the main character in Homers Iliad. Olympias was also known by several other names: Polyxena, Myrtale,  and Stratonice. Historians believe she chose the name Olympias to celebrate her husbands victory in the Olympic Games. A follower of mystery religions, Olympias was famed—and feared—for her ability to handle snakes during religious ceremonies. Some scholars believe she belonged to the Cult of Dionysus, a group that worshipped the god of wine, fertility, and religious ecstasy. Reign In 357 BCE, Olympias was married to Philip II, the new king of Macedonia, as a political alliance arranged by her father Neoptolemus, who ruled the Greek kingdom of Epirus. After fighting with Philip—who already had three other wives—and angrily returning to Epirus, Olympias reconciled with Philip at Macedonias capital of Pella and then bore Philip two children, Alexander and Cleopatra, about two years apart. Olympias later claimed that Alexander was actually the son of Zeus. Olympias, as the father of Philips heir presumptive, dominated at court. When the two had been married for about 20 years, Philip married again, this time to a young noblewoman of Macedonia named Cleopatra. Philip seemed to disown Alexander. Olympias and Alexander went to Molossia, where her brother had assumed the kingship. Philip and Olympias publicly reconciled and Olympias and Alexander returned to Pella. But when a marriage of note was offered to Alexanders half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus, Olympias and Alexander may have assumed that Alexanders succession was in doubt. Philip Arrhidaeus, it had been assumed, was not in the line of succession, as he had some kind of mental impairment. Olympias and Alexander tried to substitute Alexander as the groom, alienating Philip. A marriage was eventually arranged between Cleopatra, daughter of Olympias and Philip, to a brother of Olympias. At that wedding, Philip was assassinated. Olympias and Alexander were rumored to have been behind her husbands murder, though whether this is true or not is disputed. Ascension of Alexander After Philips death and the ascension of their son, Alexander, as ruler of Macedonia, Olympias exercised considerable influence and power.  Olympias is alleged to also have had Philips wife (also named Cleopatra) and her young son and daughter killed—followed by Cleopatras powerful uncle and his relatives. Alexander was away frequently  and, during his absences, Olympias assumed a powerful role to protect her sons interests. Alexander left his general Antipater as regent in Macedonia, but Antipater and Olympias frequently clashed. She left and returned to Molossia, where her daughter was now the regent. But eventually Antipaters power weakened and she returned to Macedonia. During his reign, Alexander oversaw the expansion of the Macedonian kingdom, as he conquered the territory from Greece to northwest India. His military skills were unmatched; within a matter of years he was able to conquer the Persian Empire, and he still hoped to make further incursions into Asia when he became sick and died in 323 BCE. Although records indicate that he died of fever, some historians suspect foul play. Battle With Cassander After Alexanders death, Antipaters son Cassander tried to become the new ruler of Macedonia. Olympias married her daughter Cleopatra to a general who contended for the rulership, but he was soon killed in battle. Olympias then tried to marry Cleopatra to yet another possible contender to rule Macedonia. Olympias eventually became the regent for Alexander IV, her grandson (the posthumous son of Alexander the Great by Roxane), and tried to seize control of Macedonia from Cassanders forces. The Macedonian army surrendered without a fight; Olympias had the supporters of Cassander executed, but by then Cassander had escaped. Around this time, Olympias formed an alliance with Polyperchon, Antipaters successor, and Eurydice, the wife of Philip III. The latter provided soldiers for Olympias to command in battle. Cassander maneuvered a surprise attack and Olympias fled; he then besieged Pydna, she fled again, and she finally surrendered in 316 BCE. Cassander, who had promised not to kill Olympias, arranged instead to have Olympias murdered by relatives of the people whom she had executed. Death Following Cassanders orders, relatives of Olympiass victims stoned her to death in 316 BCE. Scholars are not certain whether or not the Macedonian queen was given a proper burial. Legacy Like many powerful figures from ancient history, Olympias lives on in the public imagination. She has been depicted in a variety of books, films, and television series, including the 1956 epic Alexander the Great, Mary Renaults Alexander trilogy, the Oliver Stone film Alexander, and Steven Pressfields The Virtues of War: A Novel of Alexander the Great. Sources Bosworth, A. B.  Conquest and Empire: the Reign of Alexander the Great. Cambridge University Press, 2008.Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly, and Daniel Ogden.  Philip II and Alexander the Great: Father and Son, Lives and Afterlives. Oxford University Press, 2010.Carney, Elizabeth Donnelly.  Olympias: Mother of Alexander the Great. Routledge, 2006.Waterfield, Robin.  Dividing the Spoils: the War for Alexander the Greats Empire. Oxford University Press, 2013.

Essay on The Butter Fly Effect by Eric Bress and J. Mackye...

The butterfly effect is written and directed by Eric Bress and J.Mackye Gruber the film has a pretty great casting and has Ashton Kutcher, Amy Smart, Elden Henson, Eric Stoltz, Melora Walters, Cameron Bright, William Lee Scott, Ethan Suplee and Logan Lerman. The movie is about Evan Treborn played by Ashton Kutcher, now, when he was younger he deled with abuse, drama, and suffered a lot of black outs and it follows when he is 7 years old and when he is 13 years old and then when you see him in the present day. During his life a lot of things ended up going wrong, but there was one girl that kind of makes everything better for him and who`s he`s been absolutely in love since he was a kid, and that ´s Kayleigh Miller played by Amy Smart, and†¦show more content†¦Then you have Tommy Miller, played by William Lee Scott, he is absolutely insane, he is pretty much the evil villain in the movie, he is Kayleigh`s brother and he goes through a lot of character`s transformation as we ll, but the majority of the movie he is evil and sinister as he can be, and he doesn’t really like Evan because he is dating her sister. And Evan`s mom, Melora Walters as Magnolia, and she is this kind of pushy mother as her son is always getting involved in this serious bad situation and she always put trough as a single mother to be able to keep up with her son and keeping him out of all the trouble. And then we have Eric Stoltz that plays Kayleigh`s and Tommy`s father, he is kind of this weird, crippy paedophile father and he treats a lot of distraction towards the second half of the film. And then you have Ethan Suplee, who keeps on traveling back in time, And if Lenny is not his friend (Evan`s), then Ethan Suplee is and he`s always got someone to kind of fall back to every dramatic moment in his life that he keeps going back. Ethen Suplee is a little bit crazy in this movie. And last but not least Logan Lerman when Evan is 7 years old. A lot of crazy stuff that happen in Evan’s life is that he goes a lot back when he was a kid to all the drama and abuse. The cinematographic of this film has blue and those over tone. And the special fact of this movie is

Business Organisations Developing Employability Skills

Question: Discuss about the Business Organisations for Developing Employability Skills. Answer: Introduction In order to work in business organisations, the candidates are required to have a set of skills which are prerequisites to work in any industry. These skills that every individual should possess in order to work in any industry are known as the employability skills. Thus, employability skills can be defined as the basic set of skills which help an individual in getting a job offer from a business organisation. In general, employability skills are divided into eight categories, which are listed below: Communication Team-work Problem solving Initiative and enterprise Planning and organising Self-management Learning Technology ("Employability Skills", 2016) In order to find a respectable job, such as an EDA engineer, I have been developing my employability skills since a long time. I have been trying to develop some important skills through my coursework, outside my coursework as well as in the industry in which I have been working. Ability to communicate effectively, both verbally and in writing, with staff at all levels: This particular employability skill is one which I have developed throughout my life, right from the beginning of my schooling. While studying in an institute, I had to communicate with my peers, juniors, seniors, teachers, assistance teachers, head of various departments, etc. Not only did I learn to communicate verbally with the staff at all levels, but I also learned how to communicate with them through writing. I developed verbal communication skills as a result of their daily interactions with the people I met while. I also developed written communication skills from the subjects that they I was taught. Further, I also used to write formal letters to various teachers and head of departments whenever there was an issue related to the students or if I had to inform the higher authority about something important. Thus, it also helps me in developing their written communication skills. Ultimately, communication skill is one such skills which a person continuously develops throughout his or her life as he or she meets new people and has to deal with them. This skill can be developed during student life, while working in an industry as well as outside the coursework or industry (Youth Central, 2016). I have also been taking some important courses that are helping me in improving this particular employability skill while it becomes more efficient as I deal with people in my industry and during social interactions. Ability to work effectively both independently and as a part of a team: One of the most important employability skill is to work effectively individually as well as while working in a team and it is highly important for all the employees to have this skill in them. I started developing this particular skill right from the beginning of my student life. Educational institutes provide individual as well as team based assignments to the students. Such assignments helped me in developing my skills while working individually as well as while working as a part of a team (Teamwork, n.d.). This skill was further developed once I started to work in an industry. While working in an industry, I am responsible for my individual performance while I also have to fulfil those jobs and responsibilities which are provided to me by my team leaders, departmental heads, seniors, etc. Thus, I am developing this employability skill by basically working in an industry. (Kent.ac.uk, 2016). Ability to plan, prioritise and organise work to ensure pre-determined deadlines are met: Another important employability skill is the ability of an employee to plan, prioritize and organise his or work and to ensure that the deadlines are met. This is a skill which I have developed throughout my life i.e. right from the beginning of education to working in an industry and also outside the coursework. During my coursework, I had to study a number of subjects, prepare assignments, take exams, etc. which are all based on deadlines and require a lot of planning, organising and prioritizing. In our social and family lives, we all have a number of tasks that we are required to accomplish in our daily lives. Consequently, I have to plan my day, prioritise the work that needs to be accomplished first and organise ourselves accordingly. Also while working in an industry, I am given a number of tasks and associated deadlines, which I have to accomplish by hook or by crook as failure in doing so can have a direct impact on my career and the work of the organisation. Thus, I am deve loping this employability skill by working in my industry and outside my coursework too (while carrying out my day-to-day tasks). References Cte.ed.gov. (2016). Developing Employability Skills | Employability Skills Framework. [online] Available at: https://cte.ed.gov/employabilityskills/index.php/developingskills/overview [Accessed 30 Sep. 2016]. Youth Central. (2016). Employability Skills. [online] Available at: https://www.youthcentral.vic.gov.au/jobs-careers/planning-your-career/employability-skills [Accessed 30 Sep. 2016]. Kent.ac.uk. (2016). How to develop employability skills. [online] Available at: https://www.kent.ac.uk/careers/sk/skillsdevelop.htm [Accessed 30 Sep. 2016]. Teamwork. (n.d.). 1st ed. [ebook] pp.1-21. Available at: https://www.dol.gov/odep/topics/youth/softskills/teamwork.pdf [Accessed 30 Sep. 2016].

How to Buy Custom Essay Papers

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Whats Really Happening with Papers for Sale College

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Things You Can Do to Get a PhD in Writing From an Online University

Things You Can Do to Get a PhD in Writing From an Online UniversityIf you are interested in a career in writing, then this could be the right place for you. In this article I will show you some things you can do to get a PhD from writing. These things are necessary in order to make a PhD in writing from either an online university or at a local university.A dissertation consists of more than just writing the dissertation, it also means writing the research, and dealing with the main points that have been presented in the thesis, in order to present the opinion or the arguments that the author feels can be used to prove a point. Writing a dissertation is just one part of writing. You must have an outline for your dissertation.When you are writing, you will need to write different areas and sub-areas of your dissertation. Some areas include a literary analysis of the literary works, history of the writing, development of the author's literary skills, and writing of the thesis. A writer will need to take the time to make sure that his research, essays, and the thesis, all seem to fit together. Make sure you have a good outline, and structure for your dissertation.While writing your thesis, make sure you follow through on all the points that have been made and work out where to put the important parts in the thesis. There are also editing features of these websites, but only for certain sections. These editing features can help you find any spelling or grammatical errors that may have been left over after the editing.There are many students who do not like writing, and they prefer to write their dissertations and give lectures. Make sure you are passionate about what you do, and make sure you are passionate about writing. Do not get depressed when you feel like you can't write, because there are lots of other things you can do instead.There are a lot of online universities that offer online PhD programs. This can be a great place to get a PhD in writing from. There are a lot of options available to make the process of getting a PhD from writing easier. There are the choices of online and non-online universities, and each has its own benefits and limitations.The differences between the online institutions are vast, and the differences between the non-online institutions are less so. These differences may include, but are not limited to, extra help, specific financial aid, tuition assistance, classes that are in a smaller class size, and much more. The Internet is a wonderful resource that can make the process of getting a PhD in writing much easier.Online universities can be helpful for many reasons. These benefits include but are not limited to, lower cost for tuition, lower cost for housing, and no need to go back to school. Whatever your reasons for wanting to get a PhD in writing from an online university, the internet is a great place to start.

Pharmacy Personal Essay Samples Ideas

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